This is an ongoing project and we are aware that it can not progress without the input of communities from Myanmar, Sri Lanka and India. We welcome any feedback and suggestions on the content and direction of the project.
Out of the over 5000 minerals in the Earth Sciences Collection at the University of Bristol, 36% are from non-European countries and 27% came from areas now defined as current or former colonial countries of the British Empire. 453 of them are from Myanmar, Sri Lanka and India and include a range of raw materials, gemstones, jewelry and crystals.
Myanmar
The history of ruby mining in Myanmar, which was formerly known as Burma, carries a significant colonial influence. Here is a summary of the key aspects:
- Early History: Myanmar has a long history of gemstone mining, and rubies have been found in the region for centuries. The Mogok Valley, located in the northern part of Myanmar, is particularly renowned for its high-quality rubies.
- British Colonial Rule: In the 19th century, Burma was colonized by the British Empire. The British recognized the value of Myanmar’s gemstone resources, including rubies, and began exploiting them. Under colonial rule, the British established a system of state-controlled gem mines, known as the “Mines Department,” to manage and profit from the lucrative gemstone trade.
- Regulation and Control: The British colonial government introduced various regulations to assert control over ruby mining. They implemented licensing systems and restricted access to the mines, granting exclusive mining rights to select companies or individuals. This allowed the British to maintain a monopoly over the gem trade and maximize their profits.
- Labor Conditions: The British colonial administration relied heavily on the labor of local Burmese and indigenous people for ruby mining. These workers often faced harsh conditions, including long hours, low wages, and limited rights. The colonial authorities prioritized extracting the maximum value from the mines rather than ensuring fair treatment for the laborers.
- Economic Impact: The ruby mining industry played a crucial role in the colonial economy of Burma. The British extracted substantial wealth from the gem trade, which contributed to the overall economic development of the colony. However, the local population did not benefit proportionately from this wealth, as the profits primarily flowed to the British colonial administration and private companies.
- Independence and Nationalization: Burma gained independence from British colonial rule in 1948. Following independence, the new Burmese government undertook a series of nationalization policies, including the nationalization of the gemstone industry. The state took control of the ruby mines and established the Myanmar Gems Enterprise to manage and regulate the sector.
It is essential to note that this summary provides a brief overview of the history of ruby mining in Myanmar through a colonial lens. The complete history is more nuanced and encompasses various social, political, and cultural aspects beyond the colonial period.
In Myanmar, rubies are mined from both primary and secondary (alluvial) deposits. At these alluvial workings near Mogok, a series of claims are explored by small groups of independent miners. Photo by Edward Boehm, March 1993.
Burmese rubies hold significant cultural meaning in Myanmar and are revered for their beauty, rarity, and historical association with the country. Here are some key cultural aspects related to Burmese rubies:
- Symbol of Royalty and Power: Rubies in Myanmar have long been associated with royalty and power. Historically, Burmese kings and queens adorned themselves with rubies as a symbol of their status and authority. The deep red color of the rubies was believed to represent courage, strength, and divine protection.
- Spiritual Significance: Burmese rubies also have spiritual connotations in Myanmar’s culture. They are believed to possess mystical properties and are considered sacred gemstones. It is believed that wearing or owning a ruby can bring good fortune, ward off evil spirits, and provide protection against illness and danger.
- Traditional Jewelry and Ceremonial Use: Rubies hold a prominent place in Myanmar’s traditional jewelry and ceremonial attire. Rubies are often incorporated into elaborate necklaces, earrings, bracelets, and crowns worn during special occasions, such as weddings, religious ceremonies, and festivals. These jewelry pieces are considered precious heirlooms and are passed down through generations.
- Burmese Astrology and Gemology: Burmese culture places great importance on astrology and gemology. Rubies are assigned astrological significance and are associated with specific birth months and zodiac signs. In Burmese astrology, individuals may wear their corresponding birthstone, such as a ruby, for its supposed protective and beneficial effects.
- Cultural Heritage and National Pride: Burmese rubies are considered a source of national pride and cultural heritage in Myanmar. The country’s rich history of ruby mining and the exceptional quality of Burmese rubies have contributed to their reputation as some of the world’s finest gemstones. The unique characteristics of Burmese rubies, including their vibrant red color, clarity, and fluorescence, have made them highly sought after by collectors and gem enthusiasts worldwide.
It is important to note that these cultural meanings and beliefs surrounding Burmese rubies may vary among different communities and individuals within Myanmar. Cultural significance often evolves over time and can be influenced by personal beliefs, regional customs, and societal changes.
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka’s gem industry has a very long and colorful history. Sri Lanka was affectionately known as Ratna-Dweepa which means Gem Island. The name is a reflection of its natural wealth. Marco Polo wrote that the island had the best sapphires, topazes, amethysts, and other gems in the world. Ptolemy, the 2nd century astronomer recorded that beryl and sapphire were the mainstay of Sri Lanka’s gem industry. Records from sailors that visited the island states that they brought back “jewels of Serendib”. Serendib was the ancient name given to the island by middle – eastern and Persian traders that crossed the Indian Ocean to trade gems from Sri Lanka to the East during the 4th and 5th century.
The history of gemstone mining in Sri Lanka, formerly known as Ceylon, spans thousands of years and is deeply intertwined with the country’s culture and economy.
- Ancient Origins: Sri Lanka has a rich history of gemstone mining dating back to ancient times. The country’s gem deposits were first discovered by early civilizations, and gemstones, including sapphires, rubies, and other colorful varieties, have been prized for their beauty and value.
- Cultural Significance: Gemstones hold immense cultural significance in Sri Lanka. They are deeply rooted in local folklore, mythology, and religious practices. Sri Lankans have traditionally believed that gemstones possess mystical and healing properties, and they have been incorporated into jewelry, religious artifacts, and ceremonial objects.
- International Trade: Sri Lanka’s gemstones have been sought after by traders from around the world for centuries. The island’s strategic location along ancient maritime trade routes made it a hub for the gemstone trade. Ceylon’s gems were highly valued by foreign merchants, including Arab traders, Europeans, and Chinese, who recognized the exceptional quality of Sri Lankan gemstones.
- Colonial Influence: Like many other countries in the region, Sri Lanka came under colonial rule, primarily by the Portuguese, Dutch, and British. The colonial powers recognized the economic potential of the gemstone industry and sought to control and exploit it. They introduced mining regulations, taxes, and monopolies to maximize their profits from Sri Lanka’s gem resources.
- Technological Advancements: During the colonial era, new mining techniques and technologies were introduced to Sri Lanka. The British, in particular, brought modern machinery and expertise to enhance gemstone extraction. This led to increased production and improved efficiency in the gem mining industry.
- Independence and Regulation: Sri Lanka gained independence from British colonial rule in 1948. After independence, the government of Sri Lanka implemented regulations to protect the country’s gem resources and ensure fair practices in the gemstone industry. The National Gem and Jewellery Authority was established to regulate mining, trading, and export of gemstones.
- Reputation for Quality: Sri Lanka has built a strong reputation for producing high-quality gemstones. The country is particularly renowned for its blue sapphires, known as “Ceylon sapphires,” which are valued for their vibrant color and clarity. Sri Lanka’s gemstones continue to be highly sought after in the international market.
Today, gemstone mining remains an important industry in Sri Lanka, providing employment opportunities and contributing to the country’s economy. Sri Lankan gemstones continue to be admired and cherished worldwide for their beauty, cultural significance, and historical legacy.
The reality of modern day gemstone mining in Sri Lanka
Colonial context of mineral and Gemstone trade in Sri Lanka
During the colonial period in Sri Lanka, the gemstone and mineral trade and mining underwent significant changes under the influence of various colonial powers. Here is a summary of the colonial context of gemstone and mineral trade and mining in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka):
- Portuguese Influence: The Portuguese were the first European power to arrive in Sri Lanka in the early 16th century. They recognized the value of Sri Lanka’s gemstones and established control over the trade. The Portuguese introduced monopolistic practices and imposed heavy taxes on gemstone exports, exploiting the country’s resources for their economic gain.
- Dutch Control and Regulation: The Dutch ousted the Portuguese in the 17th century and took control of Sri Lanka. They continued to regulate the gemstone trade but implemented some reforms. The Dutch established mining districts, introduced mining licenses, and restricted access to gem-rich areas. They aimed to maintain a monopoly over the trade and maximize their profits.
- British Colonial Rule: Sri Lanka came under British colonial rule in the early 19th century. The British recognized the economic potential of Sri Lanka’s gem resources and sought to exploit them systematically. They introduced mining regulations, established state-controlled mining operations, and imposed taxes on gemstone exports. The British established the Ceylon Geological Survey to conduct geological surveys and explore the country’s mineral wealth.
- Technological Advancements: Under British rule, technological advancements were introduced to the gemstone and mineral mining industry. The British brought modern machinery, mining techniques, and expertise, which led to increased efficiency and production. These advancements enabled the extraction of gemstones and minerals on a larger scale.
- Labor Conditions: The colonial period saw the exploitation of local laborers in gemstone and mineral mining. Indigenous people and low-income workers were often subjected to harsh working conditions, including long hours, low wages, and inadequate safety measures. The British prioritized extracting the maximum value from the mines, neglecting the well-being and rights of the laborers.
- Economic Impact: The colonial powers profited significantly from the gemstone and mineral trade in Sri Lanka. They extracted substantial wealth from the country’s resources, contributing to the economic development of their respective colonial administrations. However, the benefits of this trade primarily flowed to the colonial powers and a small elite class, with limited economic advantages reaching the local population.
- Nationalization and Independence: Sri Lanka gained independence from British colonial rule in 1948. In the post-independence era, the government implemented nationalization policies to gain greater control over the country’s natural resources, including gemstones and minerals. The state took over mining operations and established regulatory bodies to manage and oversee the industry.
It is important to note that the colonial context of gemstone and mineral trade and mining in Sri Lanka had significant social, economic, and cultural implications. The complete history is complex and involves various nuances shaped by colonial policies, local resistance, and subsequent post-colonial developments.
India
Image Credit: Monty Rakusen
The colonial and current involvement of Britain in the extraction of minerals and gemstones in India has played a significant role in shaping the country’s mining industry. Here is a summary of the key aspects:
Colonial Period (British Rule):
- British East India Company: The British East India Company arrived in India in the 17th century and gradually gained control over various regions. They recognized India’s abundant mineral resources and began exploiting them for trade and economic gain.
- Mining Regulations: The British colonial administration introduced mining regulations and policies to establish control over mineral extraction. They granted exclusive mining rights to British companies, imposing monopolistic practices and often sidelining local communities from benefiting from their own resources.
- British Mining Companies: British companies, such as the Tata Group and the Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), played a significant role in mineral extraction during the colonial period. They focused on minerals like coal, iron ore, manganese, and mica, establishing mining operations across India.
- Labor Exploitation: The colonial mining industry heavily relied on the labor of local Indian workers, who were often subjected to exploitative conditions. Workers faced long hours, low wages, and hazardous working environments. This exploitation was driven by the British desire for maximum profits.
Post-Independence (Current Scenario):
- Nationalization: After India gained independence in 1947, the government embarked on a process of nationalization. The mining sector was gradually nationalized, with the state taking over control and ownership of key mineral resources.
- Public Sector Dominance: The government formed public sector enterprises to oversee mineral extraction and exploration. Companies like Coal India Limited, Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL), and National Mineral Development Corporation (NMDC) played a significant role in the mining industry.
- Private Sector Involvement: Over time, the Indian government opened up the mining sector to private participation. Both domestic and foreign companies, including some from the UK, have been involved in mining operations in India. However, the sector remains subject to regulatory oversight by the government.
- Ethical Concerns: The extraction of gemstones and minerals in India has faced ethical concerns, including issues of worker rights, child labor, and environmental impact. Efforts are being made to address these concerns through stricter regulations and initiatives promoting responsible mining practices.
- Bilateral Trade: Britain continues to be involved in the import and trade of Indian gemstones and minerals. British companies and traders are among the buyers of Indian gemstones, including diamonds, emeralds, and other precious stones.
The colonial and current involvement of Britain in India’s mineral and gemstone extraction has left a significant impact on the country’s mining industry. While the colonial period was marked by exploitation and control, the post-independence era has seen a shift towards nationalization and the involvement of both public and private sectors. However, challenges related to ethical mining practices and sustainable development persist, requiring ongoing attention and regulation.